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Rare but serious adverse effects include pancreatitis (though causality remains uncertain), gallbladder disease, and potential thyroid C-cell tumors (observed in rodent studies but not conclusively demonstrated in humans)
Brady RO Jr, McCarthy JM, Prescot AP, Jensen JE, Cooper AJ, Cohen BM, et al
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5.2.2 Mitochondrial dysfunction Ketamine disrupts mitochondrial function by reducing the membrane potential, increasing cytochrome c release, and promoting ROS generation, which collectively induce neuronal apoptosis (Bai et al., 2013)
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